Document Type : Review Paper
Authors
- Mehwish Qaseem 1
- Muhammad Yasir Khan 1
- Muhammad Waseem Akhtar 2
- Syed Zeeshan Abbass 3
- Mehwish Altaf 1
- Shakeel Ahmed 1
- Muhammad Saquib Ali 1
1 Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan.
2 Department of Metallurgy & Material Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.
3 Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan.
Abstract
Distilleries produce substantial amounts of wastewater containing high concentrations of organic and inorganic pollutants, leading to serious environmental concerns. In Sindh, Pakistan, water resources are at risk owing to the inappropriate disposal of industrial distillery effluents, contaminating land resources, water bodies, and groundwater. This has led to a notable increase in skin diseases and other health problems in Sindh, Pakistan. Therefore, effective and sustainable treatment strategies are required. We comprehensively reviewed the characteristics of sugar distillery wastewater from the Sindh region and highlighted its chemical composition, toxicity, and environmental impact. Conventional treatment methods often fail to achieve complete pollutant removal, necessitating the development of advanced alternatives. Nanomaterials, including nanoparticles, nanocomposites, and Nano-catalysts, have emerged as promising alternatives owing to their high surface areas, superior adsorption capacities, and reusability. This analysis examined a range of nanomaterials, such as metal oxides, carbon-based materials, and bio-inspired nanoparticles, and evaluated their potential for treating wastewater locally. This study aims to bridge the knowledge gaps and promote sustainable approaches for mitigating water pollution in the Sindh sugar distillery industry.
Keywords
Aditya Kiran, S. et al. (2015) ‘Impact of graphene oxide embedded polyethersulfone membranes for the effective treatment of distillery effluent’, Chemical Engineering Journal, 286, pp. 528–537. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.10.091
Afzal, M.S. et al. (2018) ‘Characterization of industrial effluents and groundwater of Hattar industrial estate, Haripur’, Advances Agricultural Environment Sciences, 1(2), pp. 70−77. doi: http://doi.org/10.30881/aaeoa.00013
Agboola, O.D. and Benson, N.U. (2021) ‘Physisorption and chemisorption mechanisms influencing micro (nano) plastics-organic chemical contaminants interactions’: a review, Frontiers in Environmental Science, 9, pp. 1-27. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2021.678574
Ahmad, W. et al. (2020) ‘Utilization of tires waste-derived magnetic-activated carbon for the removal of hexavalent chromium from wastewater’, Materials, 14(1), pp. 34. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14010034
Ahmed, S. et al. (2020) ‘Experimental study and dynamic simulation of melanoidin adsorption from distillery effluent’, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(9), pp. 9619–9636. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07441-8
Akash, M.S.H. and Rehman, K. (2019) ‘Ultraviolet-visible (Uv-vis) spectroscopy’, Essentials of Pharmaceutical Analysis, pp. 29–56. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1547-7_3
Akhtar, M. et al. (2024) ‘Use of Low-Cost adsorbent for Waste Water Treatment: Recent progress, new trend and future perspectives’, Desalination and Water Treatment, pp. 100914. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100914
Akhtar, M.S. et al. (2024) ‘Innovative adsorbents for pollutant removal: exploring the latest research and applications’, Molecules, 29(18), p. 4317. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29184317
Alaqarbeh, M. (2021) ‘Adsorption phenomena: definition, mechanisms, and adsorption types: Short review’, RHAZES: Green and Applied Chemistry,13, pp. 43–51. doi: https://doi.org/10.48419/IMIST.PRSM/rhazes-v13.28283
Alayan, H.M. et al. (2018) ‘The formation of hybrid carbon nanomaterial by chemical vapor deposition: an efficient adsorbent for enhanced removal of methylene blue from aqueous solution’, Water Science and Technology, 77(6), pp. 1714–1723. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2018.057
Ali, Y., Pervez, H. and Khan, J. (2020) ‘Selection of the most feasible wastewater treatment technology in pakistan using multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM)’, Water Conservation Science and Engineering, 5(3-4), pp. 199–213. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41101-020-00094-6
Ali, Z., Qambrani N.A., and Mahar, R.B. (2024) ‘Advanced blast algorithm for molecular identification, biodegradation and decolorization of synthetic melanoidins using fungal species isolated from soil and spent wash’, International Journal of Innovations in Science and Technology, 6(2), pp. 945–960. Available at: https://journal.50sea.com/index.php/IJIST/article/view/881
Almadani, M. (2023) ‘Adsorption process modeling to reduce COD by activated carbon for wastewater treatment’. Chemosphere, 339, p. 139691. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139691
Amusat, S.O. et al. (2021) ‘Ball-milling synthesis of biochar and biochar–based nanocomposites and prospects for removal of emerging contaminants: A review’, Journal of Water Process Engineering, 41, pp. 101993. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.101993
Anh, L. et al. (2014) ‘Utilization of turbidity as an indicator for biochemical and chemical oxygen demand’, Journal of Water Process Engineering, 4, pp. 137–142. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2014.09.009
Anjum, M. et al. (2019) ‘Remediation of wastewater using various nano-materials’, Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 12(8), pp. 4897–4919. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.10.004
Apollo, S. et al. (2019) ‘Influence of zeolite support on integrated biodegradation and photodegradation of molasses wastewater for organic load reduction and colour removal’, Microorganisms for sustainability, pp. 287–300. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9664-0_12
Arimi, M.M. et al. (2015) ‘Color removal of melanoidin-rich industrial effluent by natural manganese oxides’, Separation and Purification Technology, 150, pp. 286–291. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2015.07.013
Shedayi, A.A., et al. (2016) ‘Physico-chemical and bacteriological analysis of drinking water quality of Nomal, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan’, Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences, 7(2), pp. 81–87. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280851555_Physico-chemical_and_bacteriological_analysis_of_drinking_water_quality_of_Nomal_Gilgit-Baltistan_Pakistan (Accessed date: 7 January 2025).
Arshad, M. et al. (2019) ‘Ethanol production from molasses: Environmental and socioeconomic prospects in Pakistan: feasibility and economic analysis’, Environmental Technology & Innovation, 14, pp. 100317. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2019.100317
Asghar, N. et al. (2024) ‘Advancement in nanomaterials for environmental pollutants remediation: a systematic review on bibliometrics analysis, material types, synthesis pathways, and related mechanisms’, Journal of Nanobiotechnology, 22(1), pp. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-023-02151-3
Ashraf, H. et al. (2024) ‘A CoFe2O4/Nb2C-MXene-modified anode improved the performance characteristics of a microbial fuel cell in terms of bioelectricity generation and water treatment’, Catalysts, 14(12), pp. 862. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14120862
Avoyan, A. et al. (2000) ‘Fabrication and characterization of the Ag-based high-technology model nanocluster catalyst for ethylene epoxidation manufactured by electron beam lithography’, Topics in Catalysis, 10, pp. 107–113. doi: https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1019116117973
Awan, A.N. et al. (2012) ‘Industrial Waste Water Management in District Gujranwala of Pakistan- current status and future suggestions’, Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Research, 49(1), pp.79–85. Available at: https://api.pakjas.com.pk/downloadPaper/1980.pdf (Accessed date: 7 January 2025).
Badran, A.M. et al. (2023) ‘Advancements in adsorption techniques for sustainable water purification: a focus on lead removal’, Separations, 10(11), p. 565. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/separations10110565
Bano, I. and Arshad, M. (2017) 'Impact of Biofuel’s Production on Ground Water', in Arshad, M. (ed.) Perspectives on Water Usage for Biofuels Production. Cham: Springer.
Bashir, M.A. (2021) ‘Use of dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) for characterizing interfacial interactions in filled polymers’, Solids, 2(1), pp. 108–120. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/solids2010006
Berg, C. (2004) ‘World fuel ethanol – analysis and outlook’, Sugar Trading Manual, pp. 1-32. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-85573-457-9.50012-3
Bhardwaj, S. et al. (2019) ‘Distillery spent wash (DSW) treatment methodologies and challenges with special reference to incineration: An overview’, Environment Conservation Journal, 20(3), pp. 135–144. doi: https://doi.org/10.36953/ecj.2019.20318
Bhavsar, N.D. et al. (2021) 'Nanomaterials for treatment of air pollutants', in Handbook of nanomaterials for wastewater treatment, pp. 313-339. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821496-1.00023-4
Brown, M.E. (2004) 'Reaction kinetics from thermal analysis', in Introduction to thermal analysis. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 181-214. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-48404-8_10
Brunauer, S., Emmett, P.H. and Teller, E. (1938) ‘Adsorption of gases in multimolecular layers’, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 60, pp. 309-319. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja01269a023
Budnyak T.M. et al. (2020) ‘Chitosan deposited onto fumed silica surface as sustainable hybrid biosorbent for acid orange 8 dye capture: effect of temperature in adsorption equilibrium and kinetics’, Journal of Physical Chemistry,124(28) pp: 15312–15323. doi: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c04205
Cerri, B.C. et al. (2020) ‘Evaluation of new environmental friendly particulate soil fertilizers based on agroindustry wastes biopolymers and sugarcane vinasse’, Waste Management, 108, pp. 144–153. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.04.038
Chandra, R. et al. (2008) ‘Melanoidins as major colourant in sugarcane molasses-based distillery effluent and its degradation’, Bioresource Technology, 99(11), pp. 4648–4660. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2007.09.057
Chaudhari, P.K. et al. (2007) ‘Decolourization and removal of chemical oxygen demand (COD) with energy recovery: Treatment of biodigester effluent of a molasses-based alcohol distillery using inorganic coagulants’, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 296(1-3), pp. 238–247. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2006.10.005
Chella, S. et al. (2015) ‘Solvothermal synthesis of MnFe2O4-graphene composite—Investigation of its adsorption and antimicrobial properties’, Applied Surface Science, 327, pp. 27-36. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.11.096
Chowdhary, P. et al. (2017) ‘Distillery wastewater: a major source of environmental pollution and its biological treatment for environmental safety’, Green Technologies and Environmental Sustainability, pp. 409–435. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50654-8_18
Chowdhary, P. et al. (2020) ‘Bacterial degradation of distillery wastewater pollutants and their metabolites characterization and its toxicity evaluation by using Caenorhabditis elegans as terrestrial test models’, Chemosphere, 261, p. 127689. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127689
Chowdhary, P. et al. (2018) ‘Environmental pollution and health hazards from distillery wastewater and treatment approaches to combat the environmental threats: A review’. Chemosphere, 194, pp. 229–246. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.11.163
Clogston, J.D., and Patri, A.K. (2010) ‘Zeta potential measurement’, Methods in Molecular Biology, 697, pp. 63–70. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60327-198-1_6
Collivignarelli, M.C. et al. (2019) ‘Treatments for color removal from wastewater: State of the art’, Journal of Environmental Management, 236, pp. 727–745. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.11.094
Cullity, B. and Stock, S. (2014) Elements of X-ray diffraction. 3rd edn. Harlow: Pearson. Available at: https://www.pearson.com/en-gb/subject-catalog/p/elements-of-x-ray-diffraction-pearson-new-international-edition/P200000004006/9781292040547 (Accessed date: 4 April 2025).
Dao, T. et al. (2011) ‘Control of food spoilage fungi by ethanol’, Food Control, 22(3-4), pp. 360–368. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.09.019
De Gisi, S. et al. (2016) ‘Characteristics and adsorption capacities of low-cost sorbents for wastewater treatment: A review’, Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 9, pp. 10–40. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2016.06.002
Dhila, H.H. et al. (2025) ‘Metal oxide/biochar hybrid nanocomposites for adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of textile dye effluents: a review’, Desalination and Water Treatment, pp. 101004–101004. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2025.101004
Dhote, L. et al. (2022) ‘Evaluation of pyrolysis and gasification of distillery sludge and bio-compost mixed with coal’, Fuel, 319, p. 123750. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.123750
Dialynas, E. and Diamadopoulos, E. (2009) ‘Integration of a membrane bioreactor coupled with reverse osmosis for advanced treatment of municipal wastewater’, Desalination, 238(1-3), pp. 302–311. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2008.01.046
Díaz, E. et al. (2024) ‘Adsorption of stable and labile emerging pollutants on activated carbon: degradation and mass transfer kinetic study’, Applied Water Science, 14(4), pp. 1-12 doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-023-02087-x
Dou, Z. et al. (2022) ‘Saturation dependence of mass transfer for solute transport through residual unsaturated porous media’, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer,188(7), p. 122595. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2022.122595
Du, Q. et al. (2014) ‘Highly enhanced adsorption of congo red onto graphene oxide/chitosan fibers by wet-chemical etching off silica nanoparticles’, Chemical Engineering Journal, 245, pp. 99–106. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2014.02.006
El‑Dib, F.I. et al. (2016) ‘Remediation of distilleries wastewater using chitosan immobilized Bentonite and Bentonite based organoclays’, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 86, pp. 750-755. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.01.108
Fan, B.H. et al. (2022) ‘Effective melanoidin adsorption of polyethyleneimine- functionalised molasses-based porous carbon: Adsorption beha viours and microscopic mechanisms’, Separation and Purification Technology, 310, p. 123016. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2022.123016
Donyagard, F. et al. (2017) ‘Application of magnetic carbon nanocomposites to remove melanoidin from aqueous media: kinetic and isotherm studies’, Research on Chemical Intermediates, 43(8), pp. 4639–4655. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11164-017-2902-y
Ferrari, A.C. and Basko, D.M. (2013) ‘Raman spectroscopy as a versatile tool for studying the properties of graphene’, Nature Nanotechnology, 8(4), pp. 235–246. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2013.46
Fito, J. et al. (2018) ‘Anaerobic treatment of blended sugar industry and ethanol distillery wastewater through biphasic high rate reactor’, Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 53(7), pp. 676–685. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2018.1438826
FitzGibbon, F. et al. (1998) ‘The effect of phenolic acids and molasses spent wash concentration on distillery wastewater remediation by fungi’, Process Biochemistry, 33(8), pp. 799–803. Available at: https://pure.ulster.ac.uk/en/publications/the-effect-of-phenolic-acids-and-molasses-spent-wash-concentratio-3 (Accessed date: 3 April 2025).
Fu, F. and Wang, Q. (2011) ‘Removal of heavy metal ions from wastewaters: A review’, Journal of Environmental Management, 92(3), pp. 407–418. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.11.011
Fuess, L.T., and Garcia, M.L. (2014) ‘Implications of stillage land disposal: A critical review on the impacts of fertigation’, Journal of Environmental Management, 145, pp. 210–229. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.07.003
Goldstein, J.I., et al. (2003) ‘Scanning electron microscopy and x-ray microanalysis’. 3rd edn, Boston, MA: Springer US. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0215-9
Gonsioroski, A., Mourikes, V.E. and Flaws, J.A. (2020) ‘Endocrine disruptors in water and their effects on the reproductive system’, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(6), p. 1929. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21061929
Gonzalez-Valerio, C. et al. (2024) ‘Color compounds removal from tequila vinasses using silica gel adsorbents functionalized with thiol moieties: equilibrium and kinetics studies’, Molecules, 29(24), p. 5910. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29245910
Gupta, R. et al. (2008) ‘Submerged membrane bioreactor using fly ash filters: Trials with distillery wastewater’, Water Science and Technology, 58(6), pp. 1281–1284. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2008.352
Hanjra, M.A. et al. (2012) ‘Wastewater irrigation and environmental health: Implications for water governance and public policy’, International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 215(3), pp. 255–269. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.10.003
Ijaz, I. et al. (2020) ‘Detail review on chemical, physical and green synthesis, classification, characterizations and applications of nanoparticles’, Green Chemistry Letters and Reviews, 13(3), pp. 223–245. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/17518253.2020.1802517
Ikram, D.M., Bari, A. and Haider, J. (2023) 'Photocatalytic dye degradation using green polymer-based nanostructures'. Bristol: IOP Publishing. doi: https://doi.org/10.1088/978-0-7503-5517-9
James, J. (2017) ‘Thermomechanical analysis and its applications’, Thermal and Rheological Measurement Techniques for Nanomaterials Characterization, pp. 159–171. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-46139-9.00007-4
Jamshed, A. et al. (2023) ‘A quick review on the applications of nanomaterials as adsorbents’ MOJ ecology & environmental sciences, 8(3), pp. 86–89. doi: https://doi.org/10.15406/mojes.2023.08.00278
Jatoi, A.S. et al. (2018) ‘Utilization of distillery effluent as substrate for power generation with optimized parametric conditions using microbial fuel cell’, Eurasian Journal of Analytical Chemistry, 13(5), pp. 2-8. doi: https://doi.org/10.29333/ejac/94974
Jenkins, R. (1999) X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry. 2nd edn. New York: Wiley. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118521014
Kaloi, G.M. et al. (2017) ‘Effect of sugar industry spentwash (diluted) on the characteristics of soil and sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) growth in the subtropical environment of Sindh, Pakistan’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 189(3), pp. 127. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-5861-2
Karimi, S. et al. (2019) ‘A comprehensive review of the adsorption mechanisms and factors influencing the adsorption process from the perspective of bioethanol dehydration’, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 107, pp. 535–553. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.03.025
Karnwal, A. and Malik, T. (2024) 'Nano-revolution in heavy metal removal: engineered nanomaterials for cleaner water', Frontiers in Environmental Science, 12, p. 1393694. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2024.1393694
Kaushik, A. et al. (2018) ‘Fractionation of sugarcane molasses distillery wastewater and evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial characteristics’, Industrial Crops and Products, 118, pp. 73–80. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.03.040
Kaushik, A., et al. (2005) ‘Impact of long and short term irrigation of a sodic soil with distillery effluent in combination with bioamendments’, Bioresource Technology, 96(17), pp. 1860–1866. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2005.01.031
Kazemi, N. et al. (2014) ‘High-strength distillery wastewater treatment using catalytic sub- and supercritical water’. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 97, pp. 74–80. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2014.10.025
Khalid, S. et al. (2018) ‘A review of environmental contamination and health risk assessment of wastewater use for crop irrigation with a focus on low and high-income countries’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(5), p. 895. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15050895
Khan, M. et al. (2003) 'Characterization and treatment of industrial effluent from sugar industry', Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan, 25(3), pp. 242-247. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288739816 (Accessed: 4 April 2025).
Khan, M.A.H. et al. (2021) ‘Investigation of biofuel as a potential renewable energy source’, Atmosphere, 12(10), p. 1289. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12101289
Khan, M.M. et al. (2022) ‘Towards sustainable application of wastewater in agriculture: a review on reusability and risk assessment’. Agronomy, 12(6), p. 1397. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12061397
Khan, M.T. et al. (2019) ‘Sugarcane biofuels and bioenergy production in Pakistan: current scenario, potential, and future avenues’, Sugarcane Biofuels, pp. 175–202. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18597-8_9
Khan, M.A. (2007) Biofuels trade and sustainable development: the case of Pakistan. London: International Institute for Environment and Development. Available at: https://www.iied.org/g02286 (Accessed: 4 April 2025).
Khandegar, V. and Saroh, A.K. (2014) ‘Treatment of distillery spentwash by electrocoagulation’, Journal of Clean Energy Technologies, 2(3), pp. 244–247. doi: https://doi.org/10.7763/jocet.2014.v2.133
Kharayat, Y. (2012) ‘Distillery wastewater: bioremediation approaches’, Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences, 9(2), pp. 69–91. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/1943815x.2012.688056
Kharraz, J.A. et al. (2022) ‘Membrane distillation bioreactor (MDBR) for wastewater treatment, water reuse, and resource recovery: A review’, Journal of Water Process Engineering, 47, p. 102687. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2022.102687
Khokhar, W.A. et al. (2023) ‘Treatment of anaerobically digested distillery spent wash using electrocoagulation with al-ss-al electrode configuration’, Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 234(125), pp. 1-12. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-023-06091-4
Koshy, O., Subramanian, L., and Thomas, S. (2017) ‘Differential Scanning Calorimetry in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology’, Elsevier eBooks, pp. 109–122. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-46139-9.00005-0
Kumar, H. (2014) ‘Influence of wastewater pH on turbidity’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Development, 4(2), pp. 105–114. Available at: https://www.ripublication.com/ijerd_spl/ijerdv4n2spl_02.pdf (Accessed date: 8 January 2025).
Kumar, P.S., Pavithra, K.G. and Naushad, Mu. (2019) ‘Characterization techniques for nanomaterials’, Nanomaterials for Solar Cell Applications, pp. 97–124. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-813337-8.00004-7
Kwok, D.Y. and Neumann, A.W. (1999) ‘Contact angle measurement and contact angle interpretation’, Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 81, pp. 167-249. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0001-8686(98)00087-6
Lachenmeier, D.W. (2008) ‘Safety evaluation of topical applications of ethanol on the skin and inside the oral cavity’, Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology, 3(1), p. 26. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-6673-3-26
Lako, A., and Çomo, E. (2024) ‘Sustainable water management: an integrated approach to solving the problems of wastewater treatment’, Qubahan Academic Journal, 4(1), pp. 91–100. doi: https: //doi.org/10.58429/qaj.v4n1a267
Levitt, M.H. (2013) Spin Dynamics: Basics of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. 2nd edn. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Available at: https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Spin+Dynamics%3A+Basics+of+Nuclear+Magnetic+Resonance%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9780470511176 (Accessed: 4 April 2025).
Li, K. et al. (2020) ‘Metal oxide (ZnO and TiO2) and Fe-based metal–organic-framework nanoparticles on 3d-printed fractal polymer surfaces for photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants’, ACS Applied Nano Materials, 3(3), pp. 2830–2845. doi: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.0c00096
Li, W. et al. (2020) ‘Rosin-based polymer@silica core–shell adsorbent: Preparation, characterization, and application to melanoidin adsorption’, LWT, 132, pp. 109937–109937. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109937
Liu, W. et al. (2014) ‘Adsorption of Cu(II) and Cd(II) on titanate nanomaterials synthesized via hydrothermal method under different NaOH concentrations: Role of sodium content’. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 452, pp. 138–147. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2014.03.093
Luo, J. et al. (2021) ‘Review of advances in engineering nanomaterial adsorbents for metal removal and recovery from water: synthesis and microstructure impacts’, ACS ES&T Engineering, 1(4), pp. 623–661. doi: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestengg.0c00174
Mahessar, A.A. et al. (2020) ‘Impact of the effluents of Hyderabad city, Tando Muhammad Khan, and Matli on Phuleli Canal water’, Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, 10(1), pp. 5281–5287. doi: https://doi.org/10.48084/etasr.3269
Mahmoudabadi, Z.S. et al. (2022) ‘Optimizing treatment of alcohol vinasse using a combination of advanced oxidation with porous α-Fe2O3 nanoparticles and coagulation-flocculation’, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 234, p. 113354. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113354
Malik, S.N. et al. (2018) ‘Ozone pretreatment of biomethanated distillery wastewater in a semi batch reactor: mapping pretreatment efficiency in terms of COD, color, toxicity and biohydrogen generation’, Biofuels, 11(7), pp. 801–809. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2017.1416521
Mandal, A. et al. (2024) ‘Research progress of persistent organic pollutants in water: classification, sources, potential risks, and treatment approaches’, Water Practice & Technology, 19(3), pp. 937-959. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2024.031
Manikandan, S. et al. (2022) ‘A critical review of advanced nanotechnology and hybrid membrane-based water recycling, reuse, and wastewater treatment processes, Chemosphere, 289, p. 132867. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132867
Mansfield, E. (2015) 'Recent advances in thermal analysis of nanoparticles', in Modelling, characterization, and production of nanomaterials. Sawston: Woodhead Publishing, pp. 167-178. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-78242-228-0.00006-5
Mariana, M. et al. (2021) ‘Development of biosorbent derived from the endocarp waste of gayo coffee for lead removal in liquid wastewater—effects of chemical activators’, Sustainability, 13(6), p. 3050. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063050
Martí, E., Riera, J.L. and Sabater, F. (2009) ‘Effects of wastewater treatment plants on stream nutrient dynamics under water scarcity conditions’, The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, pp. 173–195. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2009_33
Masjedi, A., et al. (2020) ‘Magnetic nanoparticles surface-modified with tridentate ligands for removal of heavy metal ions from water’, Materials Chemistry and Physics, 249, p. 122917. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2020.122917
Mehmood, C.T., et al. (2013) ‘Combined biological and advanced oxidation treatment processes for cod and color removal of sewage water’, International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, 4(2), pp. 88–93. doi: https://doi.org/10.7763/ijesd.2013.v4.311
Mikucka, W. and Zielińska, M. (2020) ‘Distillery stillage: characteristics, treatment, and valorization’, Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 192(3), pp. 770–793. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-020-03343-5
Mir, S. et al. (2020) 'Waste water treatment-bed of coal fly ash for dyes and pigments industry'. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344979239_Waste_Water_Treatment-Bed_Of_Coal_Fly_Ash_For_Dyes_And_Pigments_Industry (Accessed: 4 April 2025).
Miranda, M.P. et al. (1996) 'Color elimination from molasses wastewater by Aspergillus niger', Bioresource Technology, 57(3), pp. 229-235. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0960-8524(96)00048-x
Mohana, S., et al. (2009) ‘Distillery spent wash: treatment technologies and potential applications’, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 163(1), pp. 12–25. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.06.079
Momeni, M.M. et al. (2018) ‘Using Chitosan/CHPATC as coagulant to remove color and turbidity of industrial wastewater: Optimization through RSM design’, Journal of Environmental Management, 211, pp. 347–355. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.01.031
Mubarik, S. et al. (2021) ‘Synthetic approach to rice waste-derived carbon-based nanomaterials and their applications’, Nanomanufacturing, 1(3), pp. 109–159. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/nanomanufacturing1030010
Muller, C. et al. (2022) ‘A review of the practical application of micro-aeration and oxygenation for hydrogen sulfide management in anaerobic digesters’, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 165, pp. 126–137. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2022.07.009
Muzammil, S. et al. (2023) ‘A review on toxicity of nanomaterials in agriculture: Current scenario and future prospects’, Science progress, 106(4), pp. 1-19. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/00368504231221672
Nadeem, N. et al. (2021) ‘Coal fly ash-based copper ferrite nanocomposites as potential heterogeneous photocatalysts for wastewater remediation’, Applied Surface Science, 565, p. 150542. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2021.150542
Naseem, T. and Durrani, T. (2021) ‘The role of some important metal oxide nanoparticles for wastewater and antibacterial applications: A review’, Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, 3, pp. 59–75. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enceco.2020.12.001
Naseer, A. (2024) ‘Role of nanocomposites and nano adsorbents for heavy metals removal and dyes. An overview’, Desalination and Water Treatment, 320, pp: 100662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100662
Nataraj, S.K. et al. (2006) ‘Distillery wastewater treatment by the membrane-based nanofiltration and reverse osmosis processes’, Water Research, 40(12), pp. 2349–2356. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2006.04.022
Navgire, M. et al. (2012) ‘Photodegradation of molasses by a MoO3-TiO2 nanocrystalline composite material’, Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 33(2-3), pp. 261–266. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1872-2067(10)60298-7
Nergis, Y. et al. (2012) ‘Impact of industrial and sewage effluents on karachi coastal water and sediment quality’, Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 11(10), pp. 1443–1454. doi: https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2012.11.10.63209
Noor, R. et al. (2023) ‘A comprehensive review on water pollution, South Asia Region: Pakistan’, Urban Climate, 48, p. 101413. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2023.101413
Nunes, L. et al. (2015) 'Melanoidin removal mechanism in an aqueous adsorption system', Physical Chemistry: An Indian Journal, 7(1), pp. 99-107. Available at: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/pfna/2015/00000007/00000001/art00009 (Accessed: 11 April 2025).
Nure, J.F. et al. (2017) 'COD and colour removal from molasses spent wash using activated carbon produced from bagasse fly ash of Matahara sugar factory, Oromiya region, Ethiopia', Water SA, 43(3), pp. 470-479. doi: https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v43i3.12
Olawade, D.B. et al. (2024) 'Metal and metal oxide nanomaterials for heavy metal remediation: novel approaches for selective, regenerative, and scalable water treatment', Frontiers in Nanotechnology, 6, 1466196. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnano.2024.1466196
Onyango, M. et al. (2011) ‘Sorption of melanoidin onto surfactant modified zeolite’, Chemical Industry and Chemical Engineering Quarterly, 17(4), pp. 385–395. doi: https://doi.org/10.2298/ciceq110125025o
Otieno, B.O. et al. (2017) ‘Photodecolorization of melanoidins in vinasse with illuminated TiO2-ZnO/activated carbon composite’ Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 52(7), pp. 616–623. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2017.1294963
Panhwar, S. et al. (2019) ‘Methane production by anaerobic digestion of spent wash in continuous stirred tank reactor’, Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 38(3), pp. 791–798. doi: https://doi.org/10.22581/muet1982.1903.21
Pant, D. and Adholeya, A. (2007) ‘Biological approaches for treatment of distillery wastewater: A review’, Bioresource Technology, 98(12), pp. 2321–2334. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2006.09.027
Parveen, F. and Sher Jamal Khan (2023) ‘Wastewater treatment in Pakistan: issues, challenges and solutions’, Global Issues in Water Policy, 30, pp. 323–349. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36131-9_12
Pathak, C. et al. (2014) ‘Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in Spinacea oleracea grown in distillery effluent irrigated soil’, Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 6(2), pp. 797–803. doi: https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v6i2.539
Patricio, E., López, J. and Thirumuruganandham, S.P. (2023) 'Experimental studies on TiO₂ NT with metal dopants through co-precipitation, sol-gel, hydrothermal scheme and corresponding computational molecular evaluations', Materials, 16(8), p. 3076. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16083076
Pellenz, L. et al. (2023) ‘A comprehensive guide for characterization of adsorbent materials’, Separation and Purification Technology, 305, p. 122435. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2022.122435
Qureshi, A.L. et al. (2015) ‘Impact of releasing wastewater of sugar industries into drainage system of LBOD, Sindh, Pakistan’, International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, 6(5), pp. 381–386. doi: https://doi.org/10.7763/ijesd.2015.v6.622
Hari Krishna, R. et al. (2023) ‘Carbon nanotubes and graphene-based materials for adsorptive removal of metal ions – A review on surface functionalization and related adsorption mechanism’, Applied Surface Science Advances, 16, pp. 100431–100431. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsadv.2023.100431
Rafatullah, M. et al. (2010) ‘Adsorption of methylene blue on low-cost adsorbents: a review’, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 177(1-3), pp. 70–80. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.12.047
Rafigh S.M. and Rahimpour Soleymani A. (2019) ‘Melanoidin removal from molasses wastewater using graphene oxide nanosheets’, Separation Science and Technology, 55(13), pp. 2281–2293. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01496395.2019.1626424
Raji, Z. et al. (2023) ‘Adsorption of heavy metals: mechanisms, kinetics, and applications of various adsorbents in wastewater remediation—a review’, Waste, 1(3), pp. 775–805. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1030046
Rami, J.M. et al. (2021) ‘Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of some synthesized metal oxide nanoparticles’, Materials Today: Proceedings, 43(1), pp. 655-659. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.12.554
Rápó, E. and Tonk, S. (2021) ‘Factors affecting synthetic dye adsorption; desorption studies: a review of results from the last five years (2017–2021)’. Molecules, 26(17), p. 5419. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26175419
Rashid, F. (1996) 'Role of economic policies in protecting the environment: the experience of Pakistan', The Pakistan Development Review, 35(4), pp. 483-506. Available at: https://ideas.repec.org/a/pid/journl/v35y1996i4p483-506.html (Accessed: 3 April 2025).
Rashid, M. and Altaf, Z. (2008) 'Potential and environmental concerns of ethanol production from sugarcane molasses in Pakistan', Nature Precedings. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/npre.2008.1499.1.pdf (Accessed: 12 April 2025).
Rashid, R. et al. (2021) ‘A state-of-the-art review on wastewater treatment techniques: the effectiveness of adsorption method’, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(8), pp. 9050–9066. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12395-x
Rasool, T. (2023) ‘Performance evaluation of gravity-driven bioreactor (GDB) for simultaneous treatment of black liquor and domestic wastewater’, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(5), pp. 7043–7057. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-31576-4
Ratna, S. et al. (2021) 'Current trends for distillery wastewater management and its emerging applications for sustainable environment', Journal of Environmental Management, 290, p. 112544. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112544
Ravikumar, Y. et al. (2021) ‘Recent advances in Microalgae-based distillery wastewater treatment’, Environmental Technology & Innovation, 24, p. 101839. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101839
Reyes-Reyes, C. et al. (2017) ‘Immobilizing different carbon sources in alginate beads for melanoidins removal from yeast effluents’, Journal of Chemical Environmental and Biological Engineering, 1(1), p. 14. doi: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jcebe.20170101.13
Ribeiro, A.I. et al. (2022) ‘Synergistic effects between metal nanoparticles and commercial antimicrobial agents: a review’, ACS Applied Nano Materials, 5(3), pp. 3030–3064. doi: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.1c03891
Robak, K. and Balcerek, M. (2018) ‘Review of second-generation bioethanol production from residual biomass’, Food Technology and Biotechnology, 56(2), pp. 174-187. doi: https://doi.org/10.17113/ftb.56.02.18.5428
Rutz, D. and Janssen, R. (2007) Biofuel technology handbook. 1st edn. Munich: WIP Renewable Energies. Available at: https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/21214116 (Accessed: 4 April 2025).
Sadegh, H. et al. (2017) ‘The role of nanomaterials as effective adsorbents and their applications in wastewater treatment’, Journal of Nanostructure in Chemistry, 7(1), pp. 1–14. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40097-017-0219-4
Saleem, H. and Zaidi, S.J. (2020) ‘Developments in the application of nanomaterials for water treatment and their impact on the environment’, Nanomaterials, 10(9), p. 1764. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10091764
Saleh, T.A. (2021) ‘Protocols for synthesis of nanomaterials, polymers, and green materials as adsorbents for water treatment technologies’, Environmental Technology & Innovation, 24, p.101821. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101821
Saleh, T.A. (2022) 'Isotherm models of adsorption processes on adsorbents and nanoadsorbents', in Interface science and technology. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 99-126. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128498767000099 (Accessed: 4 April 2025).
Salem, S.S. (2023) ‘A mini review on green nanotechnology and its development in biological effects’, Archives of Microbiology, 205(4). doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00203-023-03467-2
Sankaran, K. et al. (2014). DEPHY project: ‘Distillery wastewater treatment through anaerobic digestion and phycoremediation—A green industrial approach’, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 37, pp. 634–643. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.05.062
Sarwar, O. et al., (2024) ‘Synthesis, utilization, and recycling of graphene oxide-based nanohybrid biopolymeric hydrogels for purification of dye wastewater’, AQUA - Water Infrastructure Ecosystems and Society, 73(6), pp. 1228–1256. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2024.033
Satyam, S. and Patra, S. (2024) ‘Innovations and challenges in adsorption-based wastewater remediation: A comprehensive review’, Heliyon, 10(9), p. e29573. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29573
Satyawali, Y. and Balakrishnan, M. (2008) ‘Wastewater treatment in molasses-based alcohol distilleries for COD and color removal: A review’, Journal of Environmental Management, 86(3), pp. 481–497. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.12.024
Ratna, S. et al. (2021) 'Current trends for distillery wastewater management and its emerging applications for sustainable environment', Journal of Environmental Management, 290, p. 112544. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112544
Shahzad, T. et al. (2025) ‘A review on cutting-edge three-dimensional graphene-based composite materials: redefining wastewater remediation for a cleaner and sustainable world’, Journal of Composites Science, 9(1), p.18. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9010018
Shinde, P.A. et al. (2020). ‘Distillery spent wash: An emerging chemical pool for next generation sustainable distilleries’, Journal of Water Process Engineering, 36, p.101353. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2020.101353
Siles, J.A. et al. (2011) ‘Integrated ozonation and biomethanization treatments of vinasse derived from ethanol manufacturing’, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 188(1-3), pp. 247–253. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.01.096
Sing, K.S.W. (1982) ‘Reporting physisorption data for gas/solid systems with special reference to the determination of surface area and porosity (Provisional)’, Pure and Applied Chemistry, 54(11), pp. 2201–2218. doi: https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198254112201
Singh, S. et al. (2021) ‘Mechanism and kinetics of adsorption and removal of heavy metals from wastewater using nanomaterials’, Environmental Chemistry Letters, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01196
Smith, B. (2018) Infrared Spectral Interpretation. Boca Raton: CRC Press. doi: https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203750841
Sobande, M.A. (2024) ‘Remediation of colour from distillery wastewater using orange peels as adsorbent’, LAUTECH Journal of Engineering and Technology,18(3), pp. 130–143. Available at: https://laujet.com/index.php/laujet/article/view/711 (Accessed 16 April 2025).
Sohail Ayub (2014) ‘Treatment of distilleries and breweries spent wash wastewater’, International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology, 3(2), pp. 204–214. doi: https://doi.org/10.15623/ijret.2014.0302035
Soomro, M. et al. (2011) 'Drinking water quality challenges in Pakistan'. Available at: https://www.pecongress.org.pk/images/upload/books/Drinking%20Water%20Quality%20Challanges%20in%20Pakistan%20(6).pdf (Accessed: 18 April 2025).
Soylak, M. et al. (2021) ‘Magnetic nanomaterials for the removal, separation and preconcentration of organic and inorganic pollutants at trace levels and their practical applications: A review’, Trends in Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 29, p. e00109. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teac.2020.e00109
Srivastava, K. et al. (2021) ‘Remediation of distillery waste water using zero valent iron nanoparticles’, Current Research in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 4, p. 100072. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crgsc.2021.100072
Stetefeld, J., McKenna, S.A. and Patel, T.R. (2016) ‘Dynamic light scattering: a practical guide and applications in biomedical sciences’, Biophysical Reviews, 8(4), pp. 409–427. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12551-016-0218-6
Stevie, F.A. and Donley, C.L. (2020) ‘Introduction to x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy’, Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A, 38(6), p. 063204. doi: https://doi.org/10.1116/6.0000412
Sultan, A. et al. (2024) ‘Distillery spent wash enhances sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) growth’, Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 30(1), pp. 37-43. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.PJWSR/2024/30.1.37.43
Tabesh, S., Davar, F. and Loghman-Estarki, M.R. (2018) ‘Preparation of γ-Al2O3 nanoparticles using modified sol-gel method and its use for the adsorption of lead and cadmium ions’, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 730, pp. 441–449. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.09.246
Tang, J.-Y., et al. (2023) ‘Hyperbranched polyethyleneimine-functionalised chitosan aerogel for highly efficient removal of melanoidins from wastewater’, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 447, p. 130731. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.130731
Tariq, A., Yahaya, N. and Sajid, M. (2024) ‘Low cost adsorbents derived from vegetables and fruits: Synthesis, properties, and applications in removal of heavy metals from water’, Desalination and Water Treatment, 320, p. 100626. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100626
Tariq, M. et al. (2022) ‘Dye wastewater treatment using wheat straw biochar in Gadoon industrial areas of Swabi, Pakistan’, Water Conservation Science and Engineering, 7(3), pp. 315–326. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41101-022-00144-1
Tafese Bezuneh, T. and Kebede, E.M. (2015) 'Physicochemical characterization of distillery effluent from one of the distilleries found in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia', Journal of Environment and Earth Science, 5(11), pp. 41-46. Available at: https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEES/article/view/23285 (Accessed: 4 April 2025).
Tripathi, S. et al. (2021) ‘Biodegradation of organo-metallic pollutants in distillery wastewater employing a bioaugmentation process’, Environmental Technology & Innovation, 23, p. 101774. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101774
Turker, M. (2004) ‘Effect of production parameters on the structure and morphology of Ag nanopowders produced by inert gas condensation’, Materials Science and Engineering A, 367(1-2), pp. 74–81. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2003.10.290
Tushar, K. S. (2023) ‘Agricultural solid wastes based adsorbent materials in the remediation of heavy metal ions from water and wastewater by adsorption: a review’, Molecules, 28(14), pp. 5575–5575. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28145575
Ullah, S. et al. (2019) 'Bioinspired synthesis of nanoparticles and their biomedical potential: the Pakistan experience', Proceedings of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences, 56(3), pp. 37-47. Available at: https://www.ppaspk.org/index.php/PPAS-B/article/view/107 (Accessed: 4 April 2025).
Umar, E. et al. (2023) ‘A state of art review of the metal oxide-based nanomaterials effect on photocatalytic degradation of malachite green dyes and a bibliometric analysis’, Global Challenges, 7(6), pp. 1-18. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.202300001
Rehman, T. U. et al. (2024) ‘Mitigation of sugar industry wastewater pollution: efficiency of lab-scale horizontal subsurface flow wetlands. Processes, 12(7), p. 1400. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12071400
Urbano, F., et al. (2014) ‘Sugar cane vinasse in water bodies: Impact assessed by liver histopathology in tilapia’, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 110, pp. 239–245. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.09.010
Verma, M. et al. (2017) ‘Adsorptive removal of Pb (II) ions from aqueous solution using CuO nanoparticles synthesized by sputtering method’, Journal of Molecular Liquids, 225, pp. 936–944. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2016.04.045
Voigtländer, B. (2015) Scanning Probe Microscopy: Atomic Force Microscopy and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy. Berlin: Springer. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45240-0
Wagh, M.P. and Nemade, P.D. (2018) ‘Biogas generation from distillery spent wash by using an OPUR western biotechnology process: a case study’, Desalination and Water Treatment, 118, pp. 241–248. doi: https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2018.22404
Wang, X. et al. (2022) 'Effective adsorption of colorants from sugarcane juice by bagasse-based biochar-hydroxyapatite composite', Foods, 11(14), p. 2171. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11142171
Wang, H. and Shadman, F. (2012) ‘Effect of particle size on the adsorption and desorption properties of oxide nanoparticles’, AIChE Journal, 59(5), pp. 1502–1510. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.13936
Wang, S. et al. (2005) ‘The physical and surface chemical characteristics of activated carbons and the adsorption of methylene blue from wastewater’, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 284, pp. 440-446. doi: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2004.10.050
Wang, X. et al. (2025) ‘Mechanisms of nano zero-valent iron in enhancing dibenzofuran degradation by a Rhodococcus sp.: Trade-offs between ATP production and protection against reactive oxygen species’, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 481(1), p. 1131013. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.136502
Wang, Z. et al. (2024) ‘Polyethylene glycol crosslinked modified chitosan/halloysite nanotube composite aerogel microspheres for efficient adsorption of melanoidin’, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 266, pp. 131013. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.131013
Wu, P. et al. (2009) ‘Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry in the vacuum ultraviolet region’, Applied Spectroscopy Reviews, 44(6), pp. 507–533. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/05704920903069398
Xiong, Y.S et al. (2024) ‘Amine-functionalized soy protein/graphene oxide aerogel for efficient removal of multiple sugar-derived contaminants (SDCs): Full life cycle exploration and interaction simulation’, Chemical Engineering Journal, 499, p. 156479. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.156479
Younas, F. et al. (2021) 'Current and emerging adsorbent technologies for wastewater treatment: trends, limitations, and environmental implications', Water, 13(2), p. 215. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/w13020215
Zhang, C. and Xing, X.-H. (2011) 'Enzyme bioreactors', in Moo-Young, M. (ed.) Comprehensive biotechnology. 3rd edn. Oxford: Pergamon, pp. 479-488. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/
Zhang, L. et al. (2023) ‘Hydrogen sulfide control in sewer systems: A critical review of recent progress’, Water Research, 240, p. 120046. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2023.120046
Zhou, H. and Smith, D.W. (2002) ‘Advanced technologies in water and wastewater treatment’, Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science,1(4), pp. 247–264. doi: https://doi.org/10.1139/s02-020
Zielińska, M., Bułkowska, K. and Mikucka, W. (2021) ‘Valorization of distillery stillage for bioenergy production: a review’, Energies, 14(21), p. 7235. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217235
Zuo, J.-M. and Spence, J.C.H. (2016) Advanced transmission electron microscopy: Imaging and diffraction in nanoscience. 1st edn. New York, NY: Springer. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-6607-3
Zurita, F. and Vymazal, J. (2023) ‘Oportunities and challenges of using constructed wetlands for the treatment of high-strength distillery effluents: A review’, Ecological Engineering, 196, p. 107097. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2023.107097
)